Women and girls

Gender inequality in education remains a challenge everywhere in the world, preventing individuals from achieving their human right to education. Not only does it greatly affects the lives of individuals but also slows down the development of society,  the economic growth and worsens the quality of life. 

Numerous factors contribute to the persistence of gender inequality in education. Socio economic factors, issues such as poverty, socio-political instability, and lack of access to school disproportionately affect girls’ ability to receive an education. Traditional gender roles also contribute to the gender gap in education, expecting and forcing girls to prioritise household chores and caregiving over formal education. 

It is therefore necessary to address this inequality, especially for girls, as it brings several benefits. Educated women generally earn more, with wages increasing by an average of 12% for each additional year of schooling. Strengthening girls' education leads to lower infant and maternal mortality rates, as educated mothers have fewer pregnancies, are less likely to give birth as teenagers, and can access necessary maternal healthcare. Furthermore, it reduces child marriage; in many countries, girls without education are up to six times more likely to marry as children compared to those with secondary education. Education also equips women with the skills needed for leadership roles, enabling them to advocate for policies that improve family and community life, such as better education and social services.

The Covid-19 pandemic has further exposed and aggravated the existing gender inequalities across many spheres of life, including education. Disruptions in education have affected children and adolescents everywhere, with girls more at risk of not returning to school and losing access to programmes they need to transition to a rapidly changing workforce.

Despite these setbacks, progress has been made. According to the GEM Report 2024 on Gender, gender parity in primary and lower secondary education was achieved in 2009 and 2013, respectively. However, progress in tertiary education has been uneven. By 2020, there were approximately 114 women enrolled for every 100 men in tertiary education. However, the situation in sub-Saharan Africa remains concerning, as parity has not been achieved at any educational level.

As of 2020, for every 100 boys in primary school, there were only 96 girls, a trend that continued through lower secondary (91 girls), upper secondary (87 girls), and tertiary education (80 girls).

Sub-Saharan Africa stands out as the region with a higher number of out-of-school girls compared to boys, and this trend is worsening. Globally, nine of the ten countries with the highest out-of-school rates are in this region, with Afghanistan being the exception. Between 2000 and 2022, the number of out-of-school boys decreased by 35%, falling to 128 million, while the number of out-of-school girls fell by 41%, down to 122 million.

Moreover, completion rates for education show significant gender disparity, particularly for disadvantaged groups. While global completion rates for primary and lower secondary education are rising (53% in upper secondary school in 2015 increasing to 59% by 2023), progress in upper secondary education has been slower. 

In primary education, gender parity is largely achieved, with girls in sub-Saharan Africa now more likely than boys to complete primary school on time since 2013, although the overall compilation rate still favours boys, with 96 girls competing for every 100 boys.

In lower secondary education, while timely completion rates have approached parity globally since 2020, sub-Saharan Africa shows a gap in ultimate completion, with only 85 girls completing for every 100 boys due to late entry and repetition.

In upper secondary education, globally timely completion rates in 2010, but by 2018, 96 boys completed for every 100 girls. However, young women who do not finish upper secondary education on time are often pressured to leave school early, while young men can afford to continue their education.

While many countries have improved the situation for girls and young women, those in impoverished areas face significant barriers. This disparity is particularly evident in wealthier contexts, where gender parity exists among the richest youth but significant gaps are among the poorest. For example, in Côte d’Ivoire, 72 young women are in school for every 100 young men among the wealthiest, but this drops to only 22 poor young women for every 100 poor young men. 

(All the statistics above are from the GEM Report 2024 on Gender)

To address this issue, UNESCO adopted a Strategy for gender equality in and through education (2019-2025) to articulate the action needed to achieve gender equality in and through education.

The right to education on the basis of non-discrimination and equality is a recognised right under human rights law. Provisions relating to gender equality in education can be found in both general and specific international treaties, as well as treaties concluded in most regions of the world.

At this point it may be useful to refer to our page education as a right, which explains the normative content of the right to education, that is what rights-holders are entitled to (education must be acceptable, accessible, adaptable, and available) and states’ legal obligations to realise that content, including obligations of immediate effect, minimum core obligations, and progressive realisation, which are key to understanding the content laid out below.

To summarise, all provisions related to non-discrimination carry immediate obligations and are considered a minimum core obligation, which means states must take immediate action as a matter of priority. Provisions related to achieving substantive equality, if they are not concerned with eliminating discrimination, and achieving the right to quality education for all (with some exceptions) are subject to progressive realisation. This means that states have an obligation to take deliberate, concrete, and targeted steps, according to maximum available resources, to move expeditiously and effectively towards the full realisation of the right to education.

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979, CEDAW) is the only legally binding treaty at the international level focusing exclusively on women’s rights. It interprets and applies the right to education in a way that considers the specific needs and circumstances of women and girls. Article 10 of CEDAW is the most comprehensive provision on women and girls' right to education in international law. It sets forth the normative content in relation to the elimination of discrimination against women and ensuring equal rights with men in the field of education, including:

• the same conditions for access to studies and diplomas at all educational levels, in both  urban and rural areas

• the same quality of education

• the elimination of any stereotyped concept of the roles of men and women (see below)

• the same opportunities to benefit from scholarships and other study grants

• the same access to programmes of continuing education, including literacy programmes, particularly those aimed at reducing the gender gap in education

• the reduction of female student drop-out rates and programmes for women and girls who have left school prematurely

• the same opportunity to participate in sports and physical education

• access to educational information on health, including advice on family planning

A number of other CEDAW provisions are also relevant to gender equality in education.

Article 1 defines discrimination against women as:

any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field.

Article 2 sets out the legal and policy measures states should undertake to eliminate discrimination against women and therefore applies to the totality of rights found in CEDAW. This includes legal and policy measures related to the implementation of the right to education on a non-discriminatory basis.

Article 3 requires states to take all appropriate measures in the political, social, economic, and cultural fields to ensure that women can exercise and enjoy their human rights on a basis of equality with men.

Article 4 sets out the conditions for the use of temporary special measures to accelerate de facto equality between men and women.

Article 5 requires states to take appropriate measures to eliminate gender stereotyping (see below), prejudices, discriminatory cultural practices, and all other practices which are based on the idea of the inferiority or the superiority of either of the sexes or on stereotyped roles for men and women.

Article 7 is on the right to participate in public and political life. These rights are fundamental in ensuring that gender perspectives and issues are considered when laws, policies, and other measures affecting gender equality in education are designed, formulated, and implemented.

Article 11 (1) (c) provides for the right to vocational training and retraining, including apprenticeships, advanced vocational training, and recurrent training.

Article 14 (d) sets out the right to education of rural women, which includes the right to obtain all types of training and education, formal and non-formal, including that relating to functional literacy.

Lastly Article 16 sets out the rights of women with respects to marriage and family life. Article 16 (2) expressly prohibits child marriage and requires states to set a minimum age of marriage (see below). 

A number of other international human rights treaties also guarantee girls’ and women’s right to education combining general provisions on non-discrimination with specific provisions on the right to education.

The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966, ICESCR) guarantees the right to education of everyone on the basis of equality and non-discrimination (Articles 13 and 14) and expressly prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex (Articles 2 (2) and 3). In its general comment on the right to education, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights applies obligations under Articles 2 (2) and 3 to the right to education, clarifying, inter alia, that temporary measures to bring about de facto equality between the sexes in relation to education are legitimate as long as such affirmative action does not lead to the ‘maintenance of unequal or separate standards for different groups, and provided they are not continued after the objectives for which they were taken have been achieved.’ The Committee also provides that states ‘must closely monitor education–including all relevant policies, institutions, programmes, spending patterns and other practices–so as to identify and take measures to redress any de facto discrimination. Educational data should be disaggregated by the prohibited grounds of discrimination.’

Article 2 (2) of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989, CRC) prohibits discrimination on the grounds of sex. When read with Articles 28 and 29 on the right to education and the aims of education, respectively, there is a clear legal obligation to ensure equality and non-discrimination in education. In addition, the aims of education, provided for under Article 29 (1), include: ‘The preparation of the child for responsible life in a free society, in the spirit of understanding, peace, tolerance, equality of sexes, and friendship among all peoples’.

Article 6 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006, CRPD) recognises that girls with disabilities can be subject to multiple discrimination and obliges states to ‘take all appropriate measures to ensure the full development, advancement, and empowerment of women’ regarding CRPD rights, including the right to education, guaranteed under Article 24. The Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in its interpretation of Article 24 in General Comment 4 provides that states must identify and remove barriers and put in place specific measures to ensure that the right to education of women and girls with disabilities is not hampered by gender and/or disability-based discrimination, stigma, or prejudice. Article 8 (1) (b) recognises that gender stereotypes can intersect with stereotypes about people with disabilities, and requires states to: ‘adopt immediate, effective and appropriate measures to combat stereotypes, prejudices and harmful practices relating to persons with disabilities, including those based on sex and age, in all areas of life’.

The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1996, ICCPR) has an autonomous non-discrimination clause (Article 26) which applies to ‘any field regulated and protected by public authorities.’ The Human Rights Committee has explained that: ‘when legislation is adopted by a State party, it must comply with the requirement of article 26 that its content should not be discriminatory. In other words, the application of the principle of non-discrimination contained in article 26 is not limited to those rights which are provided for in the Covenant.’ On this interpretation, under the ICCPR, there is an obligation to ensure that education laws and regulations do not discriminate against women and girls.

Women and girls face different barriers in relation to their education in different regions of the world. The right to education, although universal, takes on specific meanings when interpreted and applied in light of shared regional customs, traditions, cultures, values, etc. Regional human rights treaties, therefore, guarantee the right to education in an adapted form–one that acknowledges the barriers common to the region, as well as reflecting the universal and region-specific aims of education.

Africa is the only region that has a human rights treaty dedicated specifically to women and girls. Article 12 of the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (2003) tasks States parties with eliminating all forms of discrimination against women in education, including obligations to:

• eliminate gender stereotypes in textbooks, syllabuses, and the media

• protect women and girls from all forms of abuse, including sexual harassment in schools and other educational institutions, and provide for sanctions against the perpetrators of such practices

• provide access to counselling and rehabilitation services to women who suffer abuses and sexual harassment

• integrate gender sensitisation and human rights education at all levels

Under the Protocol states must actively promote:

• literacy amongst women

• education and training at all levels, in all disciplines, particularly in the sciences and technology

• enrolment and retention of girls in formal and non-formal education settings, including fundamental education programmes

The Protocol also commits States parties to taking action on a number of issues affecting women and girls' right to education, including to:

• eliminate discrimination against women (Article 2)

• ban female genital mutilation (Article 5 (b))

• set the minimum age of marriage for girls at 18 (Article 6 (b))

• ensure the effective participation and representation of women in decision-making (Article 9 (2))

• guarantee reproductive and health rights (Article 14)

​The right to education of girls is also comprehensively protected by a number of other African treaties.

Article 13 of the African Youth Charter (2006, AYC) sets out the right to education as applied to African youth (defined by the AYC as every person between the ages of 15-35 years), including provisions:

• requiring that curricula include information on cultural practices that are harmful to the health of young women and girls (Article 13 (3) (f))

• that girls and young women who become pregnant or get married have the opportunity to continue their education (Article 13 (4) (h))

• on the introduction of scholarship and bursary programmes to encourage entry into post-primary school education and into higher education for outstanding youth from disadvantaged communities, especially young girls (Article 13 (4) (l))

• to establish and encourage participation of all young men and young women in sport, cultural and recreational activities as part of holistic development (Article 13 (4) (m))

• to promote culturally appropriate, age specific sexuality and responsible parenthood education (Article 13 (4) (n))

Article 11 of the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (1990) requires States parties to take special measures to ensure equal access to education for girls (Article 11 (3) (e)) and to take ‘all appropriate measures to ensure that children who become pregnant before completing their education shall have an opportunity to continue their education on the basis of their individual ability’ (Article 11 (6)).

For further information, see the African Union Commission’s and OHCHR’s Women’s Rights in Africa (2016).

In the Arab region, the Arab Charter on Human Rights (2004) guarantees equality between men and women and non-discrimination in Article 3 and the right to ‘compulsory and accessible’ primary education without discrimination of any kind in Article 41.

In Asia, the non-legally binding ASEAN Human Rights Declaration (2012) guarantees the right to education in Article 31 and non-discrimination as a general principle, but not as a human right.

In Europe, the European Convention on Human Rights (1950) guarantees the right to non-discrimination in Article 14 which read with Article 2 of the Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights (1958) on the right to education, prohibits discrimination in education on the basis of sex. In addition, Protocol 12 to the European Convention on Human Rights (2000) prohibits discrimination in the enjoyment of any legal right as set out in national laws.

The European Social Charter (revised) (1996) prohibits discrimination under Article E, provides that the state takes all necessary measures to provide for free primary and secondary education and encourage regular attendance under Article 17, and the right to vocational guidance (Article 9) and training (Article 10).

The Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence (2011, Istanbul Convention) identifies education as a key area in which to take measures to eliminate gender-based violence and its causes, and requires states to take:

the necessary steps to include teaching material on issues such as equality between women and men, non‐stereotyped gender roles, mutual respect, non‐violent conflict resolution in interpersonal relationships, gender‐based violence against women and the right to personal integrity, adapted to the evolving capacity of learners, in formal curricula and at all levels of education.

The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (2010), which applies to EU institutions and bodies and EU member states when they are acting within the scope of EU law, guarantees the right to education (Article 14), non-discrimination (Article 21), and equality between women and men (Article 23).

In addition, the Council of Europe has a non-legally binding Recommendation of the Committee of Ministers to member states on gender mainstreaming in education (2007).  

In the inter-America region the Additional Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights in the Area of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 'Protocol of San Salvador' (1988) prohibits discrimination under Article 3 and the right to education under Articles 13 and 16.

Articles 34, 49, and 50 of the Charter of the Organization of American States (1948) guarantee various aspects of the right to education.

The Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence Against Women (1994, Convention of Belém do Pará) states that all women have the right to be free from violence which includes the right to freedom from all forms of discrimination and the right to be ‘educated free of stereotyped patterns of behavior and social and cultural practices based on concepts of inferiority or subordination’ (Article 6).

Lastly, the Inter-American Democratic Charter (2001) calls for the elimination of gender discrimination (Article 9) and states that ‘a quality education be available to all, including girls and women’. (Article 16).

When a state ratifies a human rights treaty which guarantees the right to education, without discrimination of any kind (see the three sections above), they are under a legal obligation to implement these provisions in their jurisdiction. This means that states cannot just ratify a treaty guaranteeing human rights without taking the necessary steps to make it a reality for its’ citizens. Such steps include administrative, legal, policy, and economic measures. The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women’s General Recommendation 36 on girls’ and women’s right to education elaborates such measures and lays out precise and actionable legal and policy recommendations that would bring states into compliance with obligations flowing from Article 10 and other relevant provisions of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW).

States’ legal commitment to CEDAW, the Unesco Convention against Discrimination in Education (CADE), the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)—the four foremost treaties guaranteeing the right to education of women and girls—is relatively widespread. As of 2024, 189 states have ratified and acceded to CEDAW which is 96% of UN Member States, CADE has 110 States parties, ICESCR has 172 States parties, and the CRC has 196 States parties. According to our research (forthcoming), which classifies states by level of legal commitment to gender equality in education based on the treaties they have ratified, nearly half of all states (87; 44%) have the highest possible legal commitment and the majority of states cluster around the two highest levels (out of six levels) (144; 73%). However, despite this, universal domestic implementation of the right to education for all women and girls is far from being achieved, which represents a major structural barrier to the realisation of gender equality in education. Below is a map showing which states constitutionally protect the right to education of women and girls.

For more information on the legal status of the right to education of girls and women in specific countries, see:

• RTE’s background paper for the Global Education Monitoring Report’s 2017 Gender Review which includes information on how legally committed each state is to achieving the right to education of women and girls free from discrimination

• UNESCO’s global database on the right to education (searching by the themes ‘non-discrimination’ and ‘gender equality’)

In addition, UNGEI has produced useful guidance aimed at country and regional-level education planners to assist in developing gender-responsive Education Sector Plans.

Women and girls are rights-holders and as such are entitled to the full exercise and equal enjoyment of the right to education. However, in addition to being a fundamental right in and of itself, the right to education is a ‘multiplier right’ and is, therefore, instrumental in enabling them to benefit from and claim other key rights, such as those related to work, property, political participation, access to justice, freedom from violence and health, including sexual and reproductive health and rights.

Girls who receive more education are less likely to marry as children and to become pregnant and young mothers.  According to Girls not brides, for every year a girl remains in secondary school, the likelihood o fher meering as a child decreases by 6 %. According to UNESCO, children of literate mothers are over 50% more likely to live past the age of five. There are also significant health benefits for girls and women, with considerable evidence that an increase in a mother’s education reduces the likelihood of dying in childbirth.

Ensuring quality education for all girls also increases how much they can earn and counters the continued feminisation of poverty. According to the World Bank Group (WBG), one year of secondary education for a girl can mean as much as a 25% increase in wages later in life. The benefits of this are passed on to their children as women tend to reinvest 90% of their income in their families.

Studies have consistently shown that educating girls leads to significant and wide-reaching benefits not only to women themselves and their families but also to their societies and economies. Girls’ education is proven to have a powerful impact on economic growth. According to WBG a one percentage point increase in the proportion of women with secondary education raises the average gross domestic product (GDP) by 0.3 percent. Education can improve the opportunities for women to work, which in turn can impact on poverty reduction. For example, in Latin America, when women’s participation in the labour market increased 15 percent in just one decade, the rate of poverty decreased by 30 percent (WBG). 

Girls and women face specific forms of discrimination in accessing education, within education systems, and through education. The accordions below explain the most common barriers woman and girls encounter around the world. Each of these obstacles is underpinned by harmful gender stereotypes about the role of women and men in society.

Although sex is an expressly prohibited grounds of discrimination under international human rights law, it is important to recognise that women and girls are highly heterogeneous. Gender inequality and discrimination to, in, and through education is experienced in varying forms and at all levels by women and girls, depending on their personal, local, and national context. But every woman and girl who has attended school has likely encountered some form of discrimination in education at some point in her life.

Intersectional discrimination recognises that women and girls face discrimination in different ways. The interaction between gender and other factors, such as poverty, living in rural areas, and/or characteristics, such as physical or mental impairment, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and gender identity often exacerbates the discrimination women and girls face regarding their right to education.

For example, according to the 2016 Global Education Monitoring Report’s 2016 Gender Review (p. 19), in 2011 in India, upper secondary completion rates of rich urban girls and boys averaged 70%. For poor rural males the average was 26% but the rate was much lower for poor rural females, suggesting it is not their gender or wealth status or where they live that affects their enjoyment of their right to education but the intersection of being female, identifying as a women or girl, coming from a low income family, and living in a rural area.

Girls and women can face discrimination in all areas and throughout all stages of their life. Eliminating discrimination in education is an important start, but women and girls will often continue to face discrimination upon leaving school. Discrimination, in all its forms, whether it happens in public or private, needs to be tackled in a comprehensive and holistic manner (cross-sectorally and through various measures that take into account how discrimination and inequality aggregate throughout a woman’s life) and at all levels in order to ensure that women and girls enjoy and benefit from their education. Common challenges include:

• the gender pay gap–women, on average, earn less than men (59% according to the World Economic Forum)

• unequal political participation and representation (according to the Inter-Parliamentary Union only 23% of parliamentarians and 5.7% of world leaders are women)

• under-representation in certain fields, such as in science, technology, engineering, maths (STEM), as well as sports, in particular in leadership positions

• lack of flexible working arrangements, parental leave, and maternity benefits

• lack of access to healthcare and enjoyment of sexual and reproductive health and rights

• exposure to gender-based violence against women, including harmful practices

• paid and unpaid care work which continues to be disproportionately borne by women and girls (ActionAid report that a woman will do an average of four years extra work compared to her male peers over her lifetime)

Gender stereotypes and gender stereotyping underpin or exacerbate many of the obstacles faced by women and girls in enjoying their right to education. Ideally, education systems should be focal points for action to combat gender stereotypes and gender stereotyping. However, in some cases, the education system, and particularly the curriculum, textbooks, and teachers, play a role in perpetuating harmful gender stereotypes, which has wide ranging effects on girls throughout their lives, from the course options and subjects they take, which influences their employment prospects, to their ability to make informed decisions about their sexual and reproductive health.

According to Cook and Cusack (2010, p. 9) a gender stereotype is a generalised view or preconception about attributes or characteristics that are or ought to be possessed by, or the roles that are or should be performed by women and men. According to a OHCHR report (2013, p. 18), a gender stereotype is harmful when it limits women’s and men’s capacity to develop their personal abilities, pursue their professional careers and make choices about their lives and life plans.

Gender stereotyping is the practice of ascribing to an individual woman or man specific attributes, characteristics, or roles by reason only of her or his membership in the social group of women or men. Gender stereotyping is considered wrongful when it results in a violation or violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms.

Harmful gender stereotypes and wrongful gender stereotyping can affect girls before they step into a classroom and may even prevent girls from going to school. For example, stereotypical views that girls are domestic, homemakers, and caregivers may lead families to question the point of sending their daughters to school if they are to become wives and mothers, whilst the stereotype that men should be breadwinners means that boys are prioritised when it comes to education. Even when girls do go to school, some are still expected to juggle domestic responsibilities, such as cleaning, cooking and fetching water, on top of their school work.

Harmful gender stereotypes and wrongful gender stereotyping also affect girls in the school environment. For example, stereotypes about the different physical and cognitive abilities of girls and boys, leads to certain school subjects and teaching methods being gendered. Boys are considered better suited to maths, technology, the sciences, and sports whereas girls are considered better suited to the arts and humanities. This has the effect of excluding girls and boys from certain subjects (sometimes, particularly in gender-segregated schools, certain subjects are not even offered to female students) but also has a detrimental effect on girls’ further educational and employment opportunities, as girls and boys go on to study different subjects at university, where ‘male’ subjects tend to lead to more lucrative and influential careers. Gender inequality is then perpetuated through hiring practices that further disadvantage women.

International human rights law imposes specific obligations on states to eliminate harmful gender stereotypes and wrongful gender stereotyping. See our legal factsheet on gender stereotypes and the right to education for further information.

The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (the Committee) defines gender-based violence against women (GBV) as “violence directed at women because they are women or affects women disproportionately” (General Recommendation 19, para. 6). This violence takes many forms, including “acts or omissions intended or likely to cause or result in death or physical, sexual, psychological or economic harm or suffering to women, threats of such acts, harassment, coercion and arbitrary deprivation of liberty” (General Recommendation 35, para. 14). The Committee recognizes GBV as a form of discrimination under Article 1 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW, 1979), establishing a legal framework that positions GBV as a human rights violation, primarily articulated in General Recommendations 19 and 35.

The impact of GBV is particularly pronounced among girls, who face numerous barriers to education. Forms of violence such as domestic abuse, sexual violence, harassment, female genital mutilation, child marriage, femicide, and trafficking significantly hinder their ability to pursue and complete their educational journeys (Plan International). This violence can occur in both private and public settings, including schools. When it manifests in educational environments, it is referred to as "school-related gender-based violence" (SRGBV). UNESCO defines SRGBV as “acts or threats of sexual, physical, or psychological violence occurring in and around schools, driven by gender norms and enforced by unequal power dynamics” (UNESCO 2023, School-related gender-based violence).

SRGBV undermines the rights of children and young people to a safe, inclusive, and quality education, often resulting in school dropout. Girls are disproportionately affected, facing violence from peers and adults alike. Alarmingly, one in four young women experiences violence by the age of 24, with approximately 60 million girls subjected to sexual assault on they way to or from school each year. Such incidents can lead to unwanted pregnancies, jeopardising their health and trapping families in cycles of poverty.

Moreover, SRGBV can occur not only within school grounds and during commutes but also increasingly online through digital platforms. Gender-related cyberbullying includes receiving inappropriate images or being coerced into sharing sexual content. Attacks on girls seeking education often stem from fears surrounding education’s potential to drive social, cultural, economic, and political change (OHCHR, 2015, p. 4). High-profile cases, such as the abduction of nearly 300 schoolgirls by Boko Haram in Nigeria in April  2014 and the 2012 shooting of education activist Malala Yousafzai by the Taliban in Pakistan, highlight the severe consequences of this violence. More recently, there were several cases of risk for Iranian school girls of benign poisoned and Taliban attacks on girls' education. 

Non-state armed groups frequently target female students and teachers due to ideological or religious opposition to girls' education. These groups issue warnings against attending school and pressure parents and educators to close girls' schools, often imposing restrictions on dress and movement. For example, in Yemen, late 2017 saw reports of threats on social media, including bomb threats against schools if girls continued to attend. Similarly, in Pakistan, violent attacks on girls' schools and reports of sexual violence on school routes have contributed to heightened fears among parents, leading them to hesitate in sending their daughters to school.

International human rights law explicitly prohibits GBV in all contexts, including educational settings. This prohibition applies to both state actors, such as public authorities, and non-state actors, including family members and educators. Under this legal framework, states have specific responsibilities to address GBV, as outlined in paragraphs 21-6 of CEDAW General Recommendation 35. This approach shows the need for concerted efforts to protect the rights of girls and women and to ensure their access to safe, equitable education.

See our legal factsheet for specific provisions of international and regional law relating to gender-based violence against women. 

For further reading, see Unesco and UN Women (2016) Global guidance on school-related gender-based violence. See also Global Education Monitoring Report’s blog Teachers are central to any effective response to school-related gender-based violence (part 1 and part 2).

Child marriage is any formal marriage or informal union where one or both of the parties are under 18 years of age. According to Girls Not Brides, every year 12 million underage girls get married. Globally, it is estimated that there are 640 million women alive today who were married before the age of 18—that’s 10% of the world’s population. Globally, the rates of child marriage are slowly declining but progress isn't happening fast enough. Child marriage happens everywhere but is most prevalent in south Asia (26% of girls married by 18; 6% married by 15), sub-Saharan Africa (31%; 9%), and Latin America and the Caribbean (21%; 4%).

Child marriage violates multiple human rights, including the right to education, making it a particularly egregious practice. Children who get married are more likely to drop out of school and children who are not in school are more likely to get married. Statistics from the World Bank and International Center for Research on Women reveal that 10-30% of parents, depending on country, reported that their child dropped out of secondary school due to child marriage and/or pregnancy. Their research also indicates that for every year a girl marries before the age of 18, the likelihood she completes secondary education decreases by 0.22 years on average. In Latin America and Asia, girls who marry before the age of 12 have a reduced likelihood of 21% of completing their secondary education.

Although permissible under international law, marriages that occur after the age of 18 may also affect a girl’s education, particularly her ability to access higher education or other forms of tertiary education.

Linked to child marriage is early and unintended pregnancy. Girls Not Brides report that 90% of adolescent births in low and lower-middle income countries are to married girls. Pregnancy and motherhood often has profound impacts on girls’ education. Pregnant girls are often banned from attending school and sitting exams, and mothers often lack access to bridging programmes which allow girls to catch-up on their missed education in order to reenter mainstream education. Further, lack of free early childhood care and widely held beliefs that child rearing is the primary responsibility of the mother, means that women and girls often do not reenter education.

Pregnancy and motherhood can also occur independently from child marriage, as a result of rape, which is particularly common during conflict and other emergencies (see the case of Sierra Leone which saw an increase in teenage pregnancy during the ebola crisis due to the closure of schools). Teenage pregnancy and motherhood is also a product of a lack of information about sexual and reproductive health and a lack of access to contraception (birth control). See for example, our photo essay on the right to education of pregnant girls in Kenya. 

So what does international law say about child marriage and what obligations do states have to ensure the right to education of married and/or pregnant girls?

The Committee on the Rights of the Child and the Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women have stated, in a Joint Recommendation, that the minimum age for marriage should be 18 for both men and women. However, the committees take the view that a balance must be struck between recognising that child marriage is a harmful, discriminatory practice and respecting that in exceptional cases some children may be mature and capable enough to make informed decisions for his/herself regarding getting married, provided the child in question is at least 16 years old and such decisions are assessed by a judge ‘based on legitimate exceptional grounds defined by law and on the evidence of maturity, without deference to culture and tradition’ (para. 20).

This limited exception, however, does not in any way dilute states’ obligations to eliminate child marriage and early or unintended pregnancy, and to protect the human rights of child brides and mothers, including the right to education.

In order to prevent child marriage states must establish and enforce a minimum age of marriage of 18. Often, minimum legal ages for marriage are set, but the law is inconsistent (see Tanzania, for example), customary law, such as Shari’a or tribal law applies, or the law allows girls to be married in certain situations, for example, if she is pregnant or has parental permission. Under international law, exceptions such as these are prohibited.

In Africa, regional human rights law is strong and mandates that states enact legislation that sets the minimum age of marriage at 18 without exception (Article 6 (b), Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa [2003]; Article 21 (2), African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child [1990]. For further information on the interpretation of these articles, see the Joint General Comment of the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights and the African Committee of Experts on the Rights and Welfare of the Child on ending child marriage). 

The map below illustrates that very few states have set the minimum age of marriage at 18. This is particularly true of the Americas, sub-Saharan Africa, and South East Asia—all regions with high child marriage prevalence rates. It should also be pointed out that child marriage is permissible by law in a number of ‘global north’ countries, notably the US.

Under international law, states are not allowed to refuse access to school by expelling girls on the basis of marriage, pregnancy, or having given birth as this would constitute discrimination. This includes a prohibition of mandatory pregnancy testing, which has been documented in various African states, including: Tanzania, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Uganda, and Zimbabwe.

Further, in order to rectify the negative impacts of child marriage and early pregnancy on the right to education, for example, if a girl misses any of her primary education, states must provide fundamental education, that is education that replaces missed primary education for girls who become married or pregnant at primary school age (Article 13 (d), International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights). However, most child marriages and early pregnancies occur during secondary education. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979, CEDAW) adapts the fundamental education provision to include obligations to make efforts to keep girls in school and to organise ‘programmes for girls and women who have left school prematurely’ (Article 10 (f)). Programmes that allow girls to re-enter education are known as ‘re-entry programmes’. Successful examples of reentry programmes include Zambia and Uganda.

Given the prevalence of child marriage and pregnancy in African countries, African human rights law also makes provision for fundamental education and reentry programmes but protections are inconsistent.

The African Youth Charter (2006) requires states to: ‘Ensure, where applicable, that girls and young women who become pregnant or married before completing their education shall have the opportunity to continue their education’ (Article 13 (4) (h)).

Article 12 (2) (c) of the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa is less specific and urges states to ‘promote the enrolment and retention of girls in schools and other training institutions and the organisation of programmes for women who leave school prematurely’.

Article 11 (6), African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, requires states to take ‘all appropriate measures to ensure that children who become pregnant before completing their education shall have an opportunity to continue with their education on the basis of their individual ability.’ Although this provision would seem to provide for re-entry programmes, the caveat that such opportunity is based on ‘individual ability’ falls short of international standards.

International law also seeks to empower girls to make decisions for themselves regarding unintended pregnancy and requires that sex, reproductive health, and responsible parenthood education is given to both boys and girls. See, for example, Article 10 (h), Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and Article 13 (4) (n), African Youth Charter. Below is a video explaining the importance of comprehensive sexuality education.

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Lastly, international law requires states to dismantle the social, economic, cultural, and political conditions that facilitate the pervasive nature of this practice. A holistic approach is required to eliminate child marriage and pregnancy because its causes are varied and deeply entrenched. However, evidence suggests that any approach must include efforts to ensure girls enjoy and can exercise their right to education. Girls Not Brides states that girls with a secondary education are six times less likely to marry than a girl with little or no education.

For more information on preventing child marriage and early and unintended pregnancy through education, see Unesco’s Early and unintended pregnancy: Recommendations for the education sector (2017).

A bad school environment can deter girls from attending school and also negatively impact on the quality of education girls receive. The school environment refers not just to the physical infrastructure of the school premises but also the wider learning environment.

According to international human rights law, the school environment must not impair the right to education and it must also contribute to the aims of education and the right to a quality education by creating an inclusive and quality learning environment (see paras 10, 19, and 22 of the Committee on the Rights of the Child’s General Comment 1).

Common barriers regarding the learning environment, include:

• discriminatory curricula, learning materials, and teaching methods (pedagogies) (see above sections on international human rights law and gender stereotypes)

• a culture of bullying (see above section on gender-based violence against women and girls)

• school regulations and sexist dress codes, including the banning of religious symbols in schools

Perhaps one of the most significant barriers to an inclusive and quality learning environment is the lack of female teachers particularly in low and middle income countries, which is itself a manifestation of the historical lack of access to education and harmful gender stereotypes about the role of women. A Unesco brief highlights (2008, p. 1-2) that increasing the number of women teachers has a positive impact on girls’ education, because:

• in some conservative communities, parents will not allow their daughters to be taught by a male teacher

• the presence of women in schools can impact positively on girls’ retention in school and on their achievement

• at the school policy level, women teachers may act as advocates for girls, representing their perspectives and needs, and promoting more girl-friendly learning

• women teachers provide new and different role models for girls, breaking down harmful gender stereotypes

In respects to the physical school environment, inadequate and unsafe infrastructure, particularly the lack of toilets, gender-segregated toilets, changing facilities, and access to safe drinking water may discourage girls from attending school. Lack of toilets and in particular gender-segregated toilets affects both girls and boys, however given the specific needs of girls, the impact disproportionately falls on girls.

Girls require toilets for menstrual hygiene purposes, this includes access to sanitary products, without which girls often miss school because of the social stigma of menstruation, they are unable to concentrate during classes, amongst other reasons. For example, the Guardian reports that girls from low income families in the UK often miss schools because they cannot afford sanitary products and do not ask for them because of the social stigma attached to menstruation.

Within the school premises, toilets, especially non-gender segregated toilets, tend to be where girls are most vulnerable to school-related gender-based violence because they are often unsupervised.

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Poverty is the biggest factor determining whether a girl accesses education. According to the Global Education Monitoring report, in all regions except sub-Saharan Africa, children from rich families, whether boy or girl, will most likely attend all levels of basic education. However, girls from poor families in sub-Saharan Africa, Northern Africa and Western Asia, and Southern Asia, which are less likely than their male peers to attend school and this lack of participation increases at higher education levels (2016, p. 10).

A number of factors contribute to girls from poor families not being able to attend school, the biggest of which is the lack of free education, particularly in the formative years. This may be because governments do not have legal and policy frameworks in place to make free education a reality or they do but it is not effectively implemented, or it may not be adequately resourced, or there may be corruption which draws resources away from their intended use.

Lack of free education results in an added financial burden on families, which may come in the form of school fees (or other direct fees) or indirect fees such as for school uniforms, exam fees, security, school transportation, etc. Such fees are a direct barrier to school attendance for many girls, either because families cannot afford these costs or the costs may force families to select which of their children to send to school. In such instances, it is usually boys who are favoured because of the low social and economic value placed on the education of girls. To mitigate this, international human rights law requires states to guarantee free and compulsory primary education, progressively free education at all other levels, and targeted measures for groups at risk of dropping out (for instance, school transportation for students living in rural areas). Human rights law, however, neglects the importance of free or accessible early childhood care and education (ECCE)/pre-primary education. ECCE has positive impacts on child development and targeted ECCE interventions ‘can compensate for vulnerability and disadvantage, regardless of underlying factors such as poverty, gender, ...’ (EFA Global Education Monitoring Report 2007: Strong foundations, p. 113). For further information on states’ human rights obligations, see our page on free education.

Lack of free education is closely linked with government priorities reflected in fiscal policy. Ostensibly because of the 2008 financial crisis, there has been a trend in governments reducing spending on public services, including education, by decreasing the amount they collect through taxation. Such austerity measures have had a disproportionate impact on women and girls, particularly as it is the most marginalised in society who tend to benefit from public services.

One of the consequences of austerity and the failure of states to effectively formulate, implement, resource, and enforce free education legal and policy frameworks as per their human rights obligations is the growth of private education providers, mainly in low and middle income countries, but the phenomenon has increasingly been observed in high income countries (see for example, the UK, US, and Sweden).

The privatisation of education poses several human rights concerns that may negatively impact girls’ education, for instance: it may encourage further divestment in public education, gradually eroding the public education system and its capacity to reach the most marginalised, particularly girls with disabilities and private providers can indirectly discriminate against girls by levying fees which have a disproportionately negative impact on girls’ participation in education, due to parental favouring of boys’ education.

International human rights law imposes obligations on states to ensure that private providers do not impair the right to education. See our page on the privatisation of education for further information.

Finally, global action to tackle poverty through sustainable development has also focused on gender inequality and education. The international community has, through the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, recognised the importance of inclusive and quality education (sustainable development goal 4) and gender equality and women’s empowerment (sustainable development goal 5) in achieving sustainable development and has adopted various goals, targets, and indicators that are largely aligned with human rights law. See our page on Education 2030 for more information. See also our contribution to the Global Education Monitoring report 2017-8 Gender Review (forthcoming).

International

• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979, Article 10; General Recommendations 19, 25, 28, 35, and 36)
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966, Articles 2 and 13; General Comments 13 and 16)
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989, Articles 2, 28 and 29; General Comment 1)
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966, Articles 2, 3, 24, 25 and 26; General Comment 28)
• UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education (1960, Articles 1-4)

Africa

• African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights (1981, Articles 2 and 17)
• African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (1990, Article 11)
• Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (2003, Article 12)
• African Youth Charter (2006, Article 13)

Europe

• European Convention for the Protection of Human Right and Fundamental Freedoms (1948); Optional Protocol 1 (1952) and Optional Protocol 12 (2000) (Article 14 of the Convention, Article 2 of the First Protocol and Article 1 of the Twelfth Protocol)
• European Social Charter (revised) (1996, Articles E, 7, 10 and 17)
• Recommendation on Gender Mainstreaming in Education (2007)
• Charter of Fundamental Freedoms of the European Union (2000, Articles 14 and 23)

Inter-America

• Additional Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights, Protocol of San Salvador (1998, Articles 13 and 16)
• Inter-American Democratic Charter (2001, Article 16)

Arab

• Arab Charter on Human Rights (2004, Article 41)

For more details, see International instruments - Girls and women's right to education

La pauvreté est le plus grand facteur déterminant l’accès à l’éducation d’une fille. Selon le Rapport mondial de suivi sur l’éducation, dans toutes les régions, à l'exception de l'Afrique subsaharienne, les enfants issus de familles riches, garçons ou filles, fréquenteront probablement tous les niveaux de l'éducation de base. Cependant, les filles issues de familles pauvres d'Afrique subsaharienne, d'Afrique du Nord et d'Asie occidentale et d'Asie du Sud seront moins susceptibles que leurs homologues masculins de fréquenter l'école et ce manque de participation augmente au niveau de l'enseignement supérieur (2016, p.10)

Un certain nombre de facteurs contribuent à ce que les filles issues de familles pauvres ne puissent pas aller à l'école, le plus important étant le manque d’enseignement gratuit, en particulier pendant les années formatrices. Cela peut être dû au fait que les gouvernements ne disposent pas de cadres juridiques et politiques pour faire de l'éducation gratuite une réalité ou ils en ont mais ceux-ci ne sont pas mis en oeuvre efficacement, ou ne pas financés de manière adéquate, ou encore il peut y avoir une corruption détournant les ressources de l’usage auquel elles étaient destinées.

Le manque d'éducation gratuite entraîne une charge financière supplémentaire pour les familles, qui peut prendre la forme de frais de scolarité (ou d'autres frais directs) ou de frais indirects tels que les uniformes scolaires, les frais d'examen, la sécurité, le transport scolaire, etc. De tels frais sont un obstacle direct à la fréquentation scolaire de nombreuses filles, soit parce que les familles ne peuvent pas assumer ces coûts, soit parce que les coûts peuvent forcer les familles à choisir lequel de leurs enfants envoyer à l'école. Dans de tels cas, ce sont généralement les garçons qui sont favorisés en raison de la faible valeur sociale et économique accordée à l'éducation des filles. Pour atténuer cela, le droit international en matière de droits humains exige que les États garantissent un enseignement primaire gratuit et obligatoire, une éducation progressivement gratuite à tous les autres niveaux et des mesures ciblées pour les groupes présentant un risque de décrochage scolaire (par exemple, le transport scolaire pour les enfants vivant dans des zones rurales). Cependant, le droit en matière de droits humains néglige l'importance des soins et de l’éducation de la petite enfance (SEPE) / éducation préscolaire, gratuits et accessibles. Les SEPE ont des impacts positifs sur le développement de l'enfant et les interventions ciblées de SEPE «peuvent compenser la vulnérabilité et le désavantage, quels que soient les facteurs sous-jacents tels que la pauvreté, le genre, ...» (EFA Rapport mondial de suivi sur l’éducation pour tous 2007: Un bon départ, p. 113).

Pour plus d’informations sur les obligations des États en matière de droits humains, veuillez consulter notre page sur la gratuité de l’éducation.

Le manque d'éducation gratuite est étroitement lié aux priorités gouvernementales reflétées dans la politique budgétaire. Apparemment, en raison de la crise financière de 2008, les gouvernements ont tendance à réduire leurs dépenses relatives aux services publics, y compris l'éducation, en diminuant le montant qu'ils perçoivent grâce aux impôts. De telles mesures d'austérité ont eu un impact disproportionné sur les femmes et les filles, d'autant plus que ce sont les personnes les plus en marge de la société qui ont tendance à bénéficier des services publics.

L'une des conséquences de l'austérité et de l'incapacité des États à élaborer, mettre en œuvre, financer et imposer des cadres juridiques et politiques concernant la gratuité de l'éducation selon leurs obligations en matière de droits humains est la croissance des prestataires privés d'éducation. Ceci se produit principalement dans les pays à faible et moyen revenu mais le phénomène est de plus en plus observé dans les pays à revenu élevé (voir par exemple le Royaume-Uni, les États-Unis, et la Suède).

La privatisation de l’éducation pose plusieurs problèmes en matière de droits humains qui peuvent avoir des impacts négatifs sur l’éducation des filles, par exemple: elle peut encourager le désinvestissement dans l'éducation publique, éroder progressivement le système éducatif public et sa capacité à atteindre les plus marginalisés, particulièrement les filles handicapées, et les prestataires privés peuvent indirectement discriminer les filles en prélevant des frais qui ont un impact négatif disproportionné sur la participation des filles à l’éducation, en raison de la préférence donnée par les parents à l’éducation des garçons.

Le droit international en matière de droits humains impose aux États des obligations de veiller à ce que les prestataires privés ne portent pas atteinte au droit à l’éducation. Veuillez consulter notre page sur la privatisation de l’éducation pour plus d'informations.

Enfin, l'action mondiale pour lutter contre la pauvreté par le biais du développement durable s’est également concentrée sur l'inégalité entre les sexes et l'éducation. La communauté internationale, par le biais du Programme de développement durable à l’horizon 2030 a reconnu l'importance d'une éducation inclusive et de qualité (objectif 4 du développement durable) et de l'égalité des sexes ainsi que l'autonomisation des femmes (objectif 5 du développement durable) pour atteindre un développement durable et a adopté divers objectifs, cibles et indicateurs qui sont en grande partie alignés sur le droit en matière de droits humains. Veuillez consulter notre page Education 2030 pour plus d'informations. Voir également notre contribution au Rapport mondial de suivi sur l'éducation 2017-8 Évaluation sensible au genre (à paraître).

International

●      Convention sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination à l’égard des femmes (1979, article 10; Recommandations générales 19, 25, 28, 35, et 36)

●      Pacte international relatif aux droits économiques, sociaux et culturels (1966, articles 2 et 13; Observations générales 13 et 16)

●      Convention relative aux droits de l’enfant (1989, articles 2, 28 et 29; Observation générale 1)

●      Pacte international relatif aux droits civils et politiques (1966, articles 2, 3, 24, 25 et 26; Observation générale 28)

●      Convention de l’UNESCO concernant la lutte contre la discrimination dans le domaine de l’enseignement (1960, articles 1-4)

Afrique

●      Charte africaine des droits de l’Homme et des peuples (1981, articles 2 et 17)

●      Charte africaine des droits et du bien-être de l’enfant (1990, article 11)

●      Protocole à la Charte africaine des droits de l’Homme et des peuples relatif aux droits des femmes en Afrique (2003, Article 12)

●      Charte africaine de la jeunesse (2006, Article 13)

Europe

●      Convention européenne de sauvegarde des droits de l’Homme et des libertés fondamentales (1948); Protocole facultatif 1 (1952) et Protocole facultatif 12 (2000) (article 14 de la Convention, Article 2 du premier protocole et article 1 du douzième protocole)

●      Charte sociale européenne (révisée) (1996, articles E, 7, 10 et 17)

●      Recommandation relative à l’approche intégrée de l’égalité entre les femmes et les hommes dans l’éducation (2007)

●      Charte des droits fondamentaux de l’Union européenne (2000, articles 14 et 23)

Inter-Amerique

●      Protocole additionnel à la Convention américaine relative aux droits de l’Homme, protocole de San Salvador (1998, articles 13 et 16)

●      Charte démocratique interaméricaine (2001, article 16)

Arabe

●      Charte arabe des droits de l’homme (2004, article 41)

Pour plus d’informations, veuillez consulter Instruments internationaux - droit des femmes et des filles à l’éducation